Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-22dnz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-26T01:36:09.230Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Black Africans’ Freedom Litigation Suits to Define Just War and Just Slavery in the Early Spanish Empire

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 December 2020

Chloe L. Ireton
Chloe L. Ireton*
Affiliation:
University College London
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article explores how some enslaved Black Africans litigated for their freedom in Spanish royal courts in the sixteenth century on the basis that—as Christians—they had been unjustly enslaved in Africa. With a focus on the port cities of Seville and Cartagena, I explore how freedom litigation suits illuminate how individuals from starkly different social worlds and intellectual milieus—who inhabited the same urban sites—affected and shaped one another's intellectual landscapes. I trace how enslaved Africans’ epistemologies of just slavery shaped broader discourses on the just enslavement of Africans in the Spanish Empire.

Type
Articles
Information
Renaissance Quarterly , Volume 73 , Issue 4 , Winter 2020 , pp. 1277 - 1319
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s) 2020. Published by the Renaissance Society of America

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

This article is dedicated to Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra for his solidarity, mentorship, friendship, and unwavering commitment to ensuring that diverse voices enter and remain in the historical profession. I also thank Susan Deans-Smith, Nelson Fernando González Martínez, Martin van Gelderen, Julie Hardwick, Tamar Herzog, Mark Hutchinson, Matthew Kruer, Aishwary Kumar, Jane Landers, Paul Lovejoy, Giuseppe Marcocci, Adrian Masters, Rachel Sarah O'Toole, Brian Owensby, Richard Ross, Erin Rowe, Andres Vélez Posada, the anonymous RQ reviewers, and the Leverhulme Trust.

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Archivo General de la Nación de Colombia, Bogotá (AGN), Sección Colonia (SC), Negros y Esclavos (NE) 43: legajo 9, documento 1, “pleito con Juana, su negra esclava; quien pedía carta de libertad,” 1634; legajo 10, documento 9, “Francisco de Segura, mulato,” 1611; legajo 13, documento 9, “Pleito de liberación,” 1615.Google Scholar
Archivo General de las Indias, Seville (AGI), Contratación (Cont.), 5536, Libro de Asientos de Pasajeros a Indias: l. 1–5. 1509–40.Google Scholar
AGI, Indiferente (Ind.), 416, l. 3, fols. 19r–v, 23v, 34v–35r. Documents pertaining to Diego Ordás's armada. 1530.Google Scholar
AGI, Ind., 422, l. 17, fols. 114r–115r. “Real Cedula, Domingo, cristiano, natural de Gelofe.” 1537.Google Scholar
AGI, Ind., 1205, no. 21. “Petición, Domingo de color negro.” 1536.Google Scholar
AGI, Justicia, 712, no. 1. “Alvaro de Ordás contra Francisco Verdugo.” 1535–37.Google Scholar
Alencastro, Luiz Felipe de. “Portuguese Missionaries and Early Modern Antislavery and Proslavery Thought.” In Slavery and Antislavery in Spain's Atlantic Empire, ed. Fradera, Josep M. and Schmidt-Nowara, Christopher, 43–73. New York: Berghahn, 2013.Google Scholar
Almorza Hidalgo, Amelia. “Género, emigración y movilidad social en la expansión Atlántica: Mujeres españolas en el Perú colonial (1550–1650).” Tiempos Modernos: Revista Electrónica de Historia Moderna 8.29 (2014): 1–3.Google Scholar
al-Musawi, Muhsin J. The Medieval Islamic Republic of Letters: Arabic Knowledge Construction. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartolomé de Las Casas: Face à l’esclavage des Noir-e-s en Amériques/Caraïbes; L’aberration du Onzième Remède (1516). Ed. Victorien Lavou Zoungbo. Perpignan: Presses Universitaires de Perpignan, 2011.Google Scholar
Bennett, Herman L. Colonial Blackness: A History of Afro-Mexico. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Bennett, Herman L. African Kings and Black Slaves: Sovereignty and Dispossession in the Early Modern Atlantic. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018.Google Scholar
Brewer-García, Larissa. Beyond Babel: Translations of Blackness in Colonial Peru and New Granada. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020.Google Scholar
Brunstetter, Daniel. “Bartolomé de Las Casas.” In Just War Thinkers: From Cicero to the 21st Century, ed. Brunstetter, Daniel and O'Driscoll, Cian, 92–104. London: Routledge, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Camplani, Clara. “La defensa de los Negros en Bartolomé de Las Casas.” In Bartolomé de Las Casas (2011), 89–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Candido, Mariana P. “African Freedom Suits and Portuguese Vassal Status: Legal Mechanisms for Fighting Enslavement in Benguela, Angola, 1800–1830.” Slavery and Abolition 32.3 (2011): 447–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Candido, Mariana P. An African Slaving Port and the Atlantic World: Benguela and Its Hinterland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cañizares-Esguerra, Jorge. “Entangled Histories: Borderland Historiographies in New Clothes.” American Historical Review 112.3 (2007): 787–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cañizares-Esguerra, Jorge, ed. Entangled Empires: The Anglo-Iberian Atlantic, 1500–1830. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cárdenas, Eduardo. “La ética cristiana y la esclavitud de los negros: Elementos históricos para el planteamiento de un problema.” Theologica Xaveriana 55 (April–June 1980): 227–57.Google Scholar
Castro, Daniel. Another Face of Empire: Bartolomé de Las Casas, Indigenous Rights, and Ecclesiastical Imperialism. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Chira, Adriana. “Affective Debts: Manumission by Grace and the Making of Gradual Emancipation Laws in Cuba, 1817–68.” Law and History Review 36.1 (2018): 1–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clayton, Lawrence A. Bartolomé de Las Casas: A Biography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curto, José C. “The Story of Nbena, 1817–1820: Unlawful Enslavement and the Concept of ‘Original Freedom’ in Angola.” In Trans-Atlantic Dimensions of Ethnicity in the African Diaspora, ed. Lovejoy, Paul E. and Trotman, David V., 42–64. London: Continuum, 2003.Google Scholar
Curto, José C. “Struggling against Enslavement: The Case of José Manuel in Benguela, 1816–20.” Canadian Journal of African Studies 39.1 (2005): 96–122.Google Scholar
Curto, José C. “Experiences of Enslavement in West-Central Africa.” Histoire sociale / Social history 41.82 (2008): 381–415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Delmas, Adrien. “Introduction.” In Written Culture in a Colonial Context: Africa and the Americas 1500–1900, ed. Delmas, Adrien and Penn, Nigel, xvii–xxxii. Leiden: Brill, 2012.Google Scholar
Dias Paes, Mariana Armond. “Shared Atlantic Legal Culture: The Case of a Freedom Suit in Benguela.” Atlantic Studies: Global Currents 17.3 (2020): 419–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferreira, Roquinaldo. Cross-Cultural Exchange in the Atlantic World: Angola and Brazil during the Era of the Slave Trade. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fromont, Cécile. The Art of Conversion: Christian Visual Culture in the Kingdom of Kongo. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fuente, Alejandro de la. “Slave Law and Claims-Making in Cuba: The Tannenbaum Debate Revisited.” Law and History Review 22.2 (2004): 339–69.Google Scholar
Fuente, Alejandro de la. Havana and the Atlantic in the Sixteenth Century. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Fuente, Alejandro de la, and Gross, Ariela J.. Becoming Free, Becoming Black: Race, Freedom, and Law in Cuba, Virginia, and Louisiana. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garofalo, Leo J. “The Shape of a Diaspora: The Movement of Afro-Iberians to Colonial Spanish America.” In Africans to Spanish America: Expanding the Diaspora, ed. Bryant, Sherwin K., O'Toole, Rachel Sarah, and Vinson, Ben III, 27–49. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Gaune Corradi, Rafael. Escritura y salvación: Cultura misionera jesuita en tiempos de Anganamón, siglo XVII. Santiago: Ediciones Universidad Alberto Hurtado, 2016.Google Scholar
Germeten, Nicole von. Violent Delights, Violent Ends: Sex, Race, and Honor in Colonial Cartagena de Indias. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2013.Google Scholar
Gómez, Michael A. Black Crescent: African Muslims in the Americas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gómez, Pablo F. The Experiential Caribbean: Creating Knowledge and Healing in the Early Modern Atlantic. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
González Sánchez, Carlos Alberto. Dineros de ventura: La varia fortuna de la emigración a Indias (siglos XVI–XVII). Seville: Universidad de Sevilla, 1995.Google Scholar
Gould, E. “Entangled Histories, Entangled Worlds: The English-Speaking Atlantic as a Spanish Periphery.” American Historical Review 112.3 (2007): 764–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, Toby. The Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Western Africa, 1300–1589. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Green, Toby. “Beyond an Imperial Atlantic: Trajectories of Africans from Upper Guinea and West-Central Africa in the Early Atlantic World.” Past & Present 230.1 (2016): 91–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, Toby. “Baculamento or Encomienda? Legal Pluralisms and the Contestation of Power in the Pan-Atlantic World of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries.” Journal of Global Slavery 2.3 (2017): 310–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, Toby. “Pluralism, Violence and Empire: The Portuguese New Christians in the Atlantic World.” In Cosmopolitanism in the Portuguese-Speaking World, ed. Bethencourt, Francisco, 40–58. Leiden: Brill, 2018.Google Scholar
Green, Toby. A Fistful of Shells: West Africa from the Rise Slave Trade to the Age of Revolutions. London: Penguin, 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanke, Lewis. All Mankind Is One: A Study of the Disputation between Bartolomé de Las Casas and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda in 1550 on the Intellectual and Religious Capacity of the American Indians. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Havik, Philip J. “Walking the Tightrope: Female Agency, Religious Practice and the Portuguese Inquisition on the Upper Guinea Coast.” In Bridging the Early Modern Atlantic World: People, Products and Practices on the Move, ed. Williams, Caroline A., 173–202. Farnham: Ashgate, 2009.Google Scholar
Havik, Philip J. “Gendering the Black Atlantic: Women's Agency in Coastal Trade Settlements in the Guinea Bissau Region.” In Women in Port, Gendering Communities, Economies, and Social Networks in Atlantic Port Cities, 1500–1800, ed. Catterall, Douglas and Campbell, Jodi, 316–56. Leiden: Brill, 2012.Google Scholar
Herzog, Tamar. Defining Nations; Immigrants and Citizens in Early Modern Spain and Spanish America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Heywood, Linda M., and Thornton, John K.. Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585–1660. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Ireton, Chloe L. “‘They Are Blacks of the Caste of Black Christians’: Old Christian Black Blood in the Sixteenth- and Early Seventeenth-Century Iberian Atlantic.” Hispanic American Historical Review 97.4 (2017): 579–612.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martín, Jouve, José, R. Esclavos de la ciudad letrada: Esclavitud, escritura y colonialismo en Lima (1650–1700). Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 2005.Google Scholar
Landers, Jane G. “The African Landscape of Seventeenth-Century Cartagena and Its Hinterlands.” In The Black Urban Atlantic in the Age of the Slave Trade, ed. Cañizares-Esguerra, Jorge, Sidbury, James, and Childs, Matt D., 147–62. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013.Google Scholar
Las Casas, Bartolomé de. Brevísima relación de la destrucción de África: preludio de la destrucción de Indias; primera defensa de los guanches y negros contra su esclavización. Ed. Fernández, Isacio Pérez. Salamanca: Editorial San Esteban, 1989.Google Scholar
Latino, Juan. “The Song of John of Austria.” In The Battle of Lepanto, ed. and trans. Wright, Elizabeth R., Spence, Sarah, and Lemons, Andrew, 288–405. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Lofkrantz, Jennifer, and Ojo, Olatunji. “Slavery, Freedom, and Failed Ransom Negotiations in West Africa, 1730–1900,” Journal Of African History 53.1 (2012): 25–44.Google Scholar
Lucena Salmoral, Manuel, ed. Regulación de la esclavitud negra en las colonias de América Española (1503–1886): Documentos para su estudio. Alcalá: University of Alcalá de Henares, 2005.Google Scholar
Mangan, Jane E. Transatlantic Obligations: Creating the Bonds of Family in Conquest-Era Peru and Spain. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Mark, Peter, and da Silva Horta, José. The Forgotten Diaspora: Jewish Communities in West Africa and the Making of the Atlantic World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martín Casares, Aurelia. Juan Latino: Talento y destino; Un afroespañol en tiempos de Carlos V y Felipe II. Granada: Universidad de Granada, 2016.Google Scholar
Masters, Adrian. “A Thousand Invisible Architects: Vassals, the Petition-and-Response System, and the Creation of Spanish Imperial Caste Legislation.” Hispanic American Historical Review 98.3 (2018): 377–406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKinley, Michelle A. Fractional Freedoms: Slavery, Intimacy, and Legal Mobilization in Colonial Lima, 1600–1700. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKnight, Kathryn J. “Confronted Rituals: Spanish Colonial and Angolan ‘Maroon’ Executions in Cartagena de Indias (1634).” Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 5.3 (2004): 1–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Navarrete Peláez, María Cristina. Cimarrones y Palenques en el Siglo XVII. Cali: Universidad del Valle, 2003.Google Scholar
Navarrete Peláez, María Cristina. “Las cartas Annuas jesuitas: Y la representación de los etíopes en el siglo XVII.” In Genealogías de la diferencia: Tecnologías de la salvación y representación de los africanos esclavizados en Iberoamérica colonial, ed. Maldonado, María Eugenia Chaves, 22–57. Bogotá: Editorial de la Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Instituto de Estudios Sociales y Culturales Pensar; Quito: Editorial Abya-Yala, 2009.Google Scholar
Navarrete Peláez, María Cristina. “El palenque de Limón (Cartagena de Indias, siglo XVII): El imaginario del poder y sus jerarquías.” In Vicisitudes negro africanas en Iberoamérica: Experiencias de investigación, ed. Serna Herrera, Juan Manuel de la, 101–34. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Centro de Investigaciones sobre América Latina y el Caribe, 2011.Google Scholar
Navarrete Peláez, María Cristina. “Kings, Queens and Captains: Leaders of the Palenques of Sierras de María, during the XVI and XVII Centuries.” Fronteras de la Historia 20.2 (2015): 44–62.Google Scholar
Navarrete Peláez, María Cristina. “Consideraciones en Torno a la Esclavitud de los Etíopes y la operatividad de la Ley, Siglos XVI y XVII.” Historia y espacio 2.27 (2017): 1–23.Google Scholar
Newson, Linda A. “Africans and Luso-Africans in the Portuguese Slave Trade on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Early Seventeenth Century.” Journal of African History 53.1 (2012): 1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newson, Linda A., and Minchin, Susie. From Capture to Sale: The Portuguese Slave Trade to Spanish South America in the Early Seventeenth Century. Leiden: Brill, 2007.Google Scholar
Orique, David T. “A Comparison of Bartolomé de Las Casas and Fernão Oliveira: Just War and Slavery.” E-Journal of Portuguese History 12.1 (2014): 87–118.Google Scholar
Orique, David T., and Roldán-Figueroa, Rady, eds. Bartolomé de Las Casas, O.P.: History, Philosophy, and Theology in the Age of European Expansion. Leiden: Brill, 2018.Google Scholar
O'Toole, Rachel Sarah. Bound Lives: Africans, Indians, and the Making of Race in Colonial Peru. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pérez García, Rafael M., and Fernández Chaves, Manuel F.. “La cuantificación de la población esclava en la Andalucía moderna: Una revisión metodológica.” Varia hist. 31.57 (2015): 711–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pike, Ruth. “Sevillian Society in the Sixteenth Century: Slaves and Freedmen.” Hispanic American Historical Review 47.3 (1967): 344–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Queija, Berta Ares. “La cuestión del bautismo de los negros en el siglo XVII: La proyección de un debate americano.” In Mirando las dos orillas: intercambios mercantiles, sociales y culturales entre Andalucía y América, ed. Vilar, Enriqueta Vila and Lacueva Muñoz, Jaime J., 469–85. Seville: Fundación Buenas Letras. http://hdl.handle.net/10261/57537.Google Scholar
Ramos, Gabriela, and Yannikakis, Yanna, eds. Indigenous Intellectuals: Knowledge, Power, and Colonial Culture in Mexico and the Andes. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Rappaport, Joanne, and Cummins, Tom. Beyond the Lettered City: Indigenous Literacies in the Andes. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Rowe, Erin Kathleen. Black Saints in Early Modern Global Catholicism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sánchez-Godoy, Rubén A. “Bartolomé de Las Casas crítico de las esclavizaciones portuguesas en las islas Canarias y la costa occidental de África.” In Bartolomé de Las Casas (2011), 135–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sánchez-Godoy, Rubén A. El peor de los remedios: Bartolomé de Las Casas y la crítica temprana a la esclavitud africana en el Atlántico ibérico. Pittsburgh, PA: Instituto Internacional de Literatura Iberoamericana, 2016.Google Scholar
Sandoval, Alonso de. Naturaleza, policia sagrada i profana, costumbres i ritos, disciplina i catechismo evangelico de todos Etiopes, por el P. Alonso de Sandoval. Seville: F. de Lira, 1627. Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF), Paris, département réserve des livres rares (LR), 4-O3C-6.Google Scholar
Sandoval, Alonso de. Treatise on Slavery: Selections from De Instauranda Aethiopum Salute. Ed. and trans. Germeten, Nicole von. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2008.Google Scholar
Sierra Silva, Pablo Miguel. Urban Slavery in Colonial Mexico: Puebla De Los Ángeles, 1531–1706. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silverblatt, Irene. Modern Inquisitions: Peru and the Colonial Origins of the Civilized World. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Splendiani, Anna María, Bohórquez, José Enrique Sánchez, and de Salazar, Emma Cecilia Luque, eds. Cincuenta años de inquisición en el Tribunal de Cartagena de Indias, 1610–1660. 4 vols. Bogotá: Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, 1997.Google Scholar
Splendiani, Anna María, and Giraldo, Tulio Aristizábal, eds. Proceso de beatificación y canonización de san Pedro Claver. Bogotá: Pontifica Universidad Javeriana, 2002.Google Scholar
Tempère, Delphine. Vivre et mourir sur les navires du Siècle d'Or. Paris: Presses de l'Université Paris-Sorbonne, 2009.Google Scholar
Thornton, John K. “The Development of an African Catholic Church in the Kingdom of Kongo, 1491–1750.” Journal of African History 25.2 (1984): 147–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thornton, John K. “African Political Ethics and the Slave Trade: Central African Dimensions.” In Abolitionism and Imperialism in Britain, Africa, and the Atlantic, ed. Peterson, Derek R., 38–62. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Thornton, John K. “Afro-Christian Syncretism in the Kingdom of Kongo.” Journal of African History 54.1 (2013): 53–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valenzuela, Jaime. “Revisitando el ‘indigenismo’ jesuita: En torno a los ‘bárbaros’ de Arauco, la guerra y la esclavitud mapuche en el siglo XVII.” In Fronteiras e identidades: Encontros e desencontros entre povos indígenas e missões religiosas, ed. Chamorro, Graciela, Cavalcante, Thiago Leandro Vieira, and Gonçalves, Carlos Barros, 61–79. Sao Paulo: Nhanduti, 2011.Google Scholar
Van Deusen, Nancy. Global Indios: The Indigenous Struggle for Justice in Sixteenth-Century Spain. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Vidal Ortega, Antonino. Cartagena y la región histórica del Caribe: 1580–1640. Seville: Escuela de Estudios Hispanoamericanos, Universidad de Sevilla, and Diputación de Sevilla, 2002.Google Scholar
Vignaux, Hélène. L’Église et les Noirs dans l'audience du Nouveau Royaume de Grenade: Nueva edición [en línea]. Montpellier: Presses universitaires de la Méditerranée, 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wheat, David. “The First Great Waves: African Provenance Zones for the Transatlantic Slave Trade to Cartagena De Indias, 1570–1640.” Journal of African History 52.1 (2011): 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wheat, David. Atlantic Africa and the Spanish Caribbean, 1570–1640. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Wright, Elizabeth R. The Epic of Juan Latino: Dilemmas of Race and Religion in Renaissance Spain. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Archivo General de la Nación de Colombia, Bogotá (AGN), Sección Colonia (SC), Negros y Esclavos (NE) 43: legajo 9, documento 1, “pleito con Juana, su negra esclava; quien pedía carta de libertad,” 1634; legajo 10, documento 9, “Francisco de Segura, mulato,” 1611; legajo 13, documento 9, “Pleito de liberación,” 1615.Google Scholar
Archivo General de las Indias, Seville (AGI), Contratación (Cont.), 5536, Libro de Asientos de Pasajeros a Indias: l. 1–5. 1509–40.Google Scholar
AGI, Indiferente (Ind.), 416, l. 3, fols. 19r–v, 23v, 34v–35r. Documents pertaining to Diego Ordás's armada. 1530.Google Scholar
AGI, Ind., 422, l. 17, fols. 114r–115r. “Real Cedula, Domingo, cristiano, natural de Gelofe.” 1537.Google Scholar
AGI, Ind., 1205, no. 21. “Petición, Domingo de color negro.” 1536.Google Scholar
AGI, Justicia, 712, no. 1. “Alvaro de Ordás contra Francisco Verdugo.” 1535–37.Google Scholar
Alencastro, Luiz Felipe de. “Portuguese Missionaries and Early Modern Antislavery and Proslavery Thought.” In Slavery and Antislavery in Spain's Atlantic Empire, ed. Fradera, Josep M. and Schmidt-Nowara, Christopher, 43–73. New York: Berghahn, 2013.Google Scholar
Almorza Hidalgo, Amelia. “Género, emigración y movilidad social en la expansión Atlántica: Mujeres españolas en el Perú colonial (1550–1650).” Tiempos Modernos: Revista Electrónica de Historia Moderna 8.29 (2014): 1–3.Google Scholar
al-Musawi, Muhsin J. The Medieval Islamic Republic of Letters: Arabic Knowledge Construction. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartolomé de Las Casas: Face à l’esclavage des Noir-e-s en Amériques/Caraïbes; L’aberration du Onzième Remède (1516). Ed. Victorien Lavou Zoungbo. Perpignan: Presses Universitaires de Perpignan, 2011.Google Scholar
Bennett, Herman L. Colonial Blackness: A History of Afro-Mexico. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Bennett, Herman L. African Kings and Black Slaves: Sovereignty and Dispossession in the Early Modern Atlantic. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018.Google Scholar
Brewer-García, Larissa. Beyond Babel: Translations of Blackness in Colonial Peru and New Granada. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020.Google Scholar
Brunstetter, Daniel. “Bartolomé de Las Casas.” In Just War Thinkers: From Cicero to the 21st Century, ed. Brunstetter, Daniel and O'Driscoll, Cian, 92–104. London: Routledge, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Camplani, Clara. “La defensa de los Negros en Bartolomé de Las Casas.” In Bartolomé de Las Casas (2011), 89–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Candido, Mariana P. “African Freedom Suits and Portuguese Vassal Status: Legal Mechanisms for Fighting Enslavement in Benguela, Angola, 1800–1830.” Slavery and Abolition 32.3 (2011): 447–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Candido, Mariana P. An African Slaving Port and the Atlantic World: Benguela and Its Hinterland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cañizares-Esguerra, Jorge. “Entangled Histories: Borderland Historiographies in New Clothes.” American Historical Review 112.3 (2007): 787–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cañizares-Esguerra, Jorge, ed. Entangled Empires: The Anglo-Iberian Atlantic, 1500–1830. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cárdenas, Eduardo. “La ética cristiana y la esclavitud de los negros: Elementos históricos para el planteamiento de un problema.” Theologica Xaveriana 55 (April–June 1980): 227–57.Google Scholar
Castro, Daniel. Another Face of Empire: Bartolomé de Las Casas, Indigenous Rights, and Ecclesiastical Imperialism. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Chira, Adriana. “Affective Debts: Manumission by Grace and the Making of Gradual Emancipation Laws in Cuba, 1817–68.” Law and History Review 36.1 (2018): 1–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clayton, Lawrence A. Bartolomé de Las Casas: A Biography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curto, José C. “The Story of Nbena, 1817–1820: Unlawful Enslavement and the Concept of ‘Original Freedom’ in Angola.” In Trans-Atlantic Dimensions of Ethnicity in the African Diaspora, ed. Lovejoy, Paul E. and Trotman, David V., 42–64. London: Continuum, 2003.Google Scholar
Curto, José C. “Struggling against Enslavement: The Case of José Manuel in Benguela, 1816–20.” Canadian Journal of African Studies 39.1 (2005): 96–122.Google Scholar
Curto, José C. “Experiences of Enslavement in West-Central Africa.” Histoire sociale / Social history 41.82 (2008): 381–415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Delmas, Adrien. “Introduction.” In Written Culture in a Colonial Context: Africa and the Americas 1500–1900, ed. Delmas, Adrien and Penn, Nigel, xvii–xxxii. Leiden: Brill, 2012.Google Scholar
Dias Paes, Mariana Armond. “Shared Atlantic Legal Culture: The Case of a Freedom Suit in Benguela.” Atlantic Studies: Global Currents 17.3 (2020): 419–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferreira, Roquinaldo. Cross-Cultural Exchange in the Atlantic World: Angola and Brazil during the Era of the Slave Trade. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fromont, Cécile. The Art of Conversion: Christian Visual Culture in the Kingdom of Kongo. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fuente, Alejandro de la. “Slave Law and Claims-Making in Cuba: The Tannenbaum Debate Revisited.” Law and History Review 22.2 (2004): 339–69.Google Scholar
Fuente, Alejandro de la. Havana and the Atlantic in the Sixteenth Century. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Fuente, Alejandro de la, and Gross, Ariela J.. Becoming Free, Becoming Black: Race, Freedom, and Law in Cuba, Virginia, and Louisiana. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garofalo, Leo J. “The Shape of a Diaspora: The Movement of Afro-Iberians to Colonial Spanish America.” In Africans to Spanish America: Expanding the Diaspora, ed. Bryant, Sherwin K., O'Toole, Rachel Sarah, and Vinson, Ben III, 27–49. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Gaune Corradi, Rafael. Escritura y salvación: Cultura misionera jesuita en tiempos de Anganamón, siglo XVII. Santiago: Ediciones Universidad Alberto Hurtado, 2016.Google Scholar
Germeten, Nicole von. Violent Delights, Violent Ends: Sex, Race, and Honor in Colonial Cartagena de Indias. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2013.Google Scholar
Gómez, Michael A. Black Crescent: African Muslims in the Americas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gómez, Pablo F. The Experiential Caribbean: Creating Knowledge and Healing in the Early Modern Atlantic. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
González Sánchez, Carlos Alberto. Dineros de ventura: La varia fortuna de la emigración a Indias (siglos XVI–XVII). Seville: Universidad de Sevilla, 1995.Google Scholar
Gould, E. “Entangled Histories, Entangled Worlds: The English-Speaking Atlantic as a Spanish Periphery.” American Historical Review 112.3 (2007): 764–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, Toby. The Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Western Africa, 1300–1589. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Green, Toby. “Beyond an Imperial Atlantic: Trajectories of Africans from Upper Guinea and West-Central Africa in the Early Atlantic World.” Past & Present 230.1 (2016): 91–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, Toby. “Baculamento or Encomienda? Legal Pluralisms and the Contestation of Power in the Pan-Atlantic World of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries.” Journal of Global Slavery 2.3 (2017): 310–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, Toby. “Pluralism, Violence and Empire: The Portuguese New Christians in the Atlantic World.” In Cosmopolitanism in the Portuguese-Speaking World, ed. Bethencourt, Francisco, 40–58. Leiden: Brill, 2018.Google Scholar
Green, Toby. A Fistful of Shells: West Africa from the Rise Slave Trade to the Age of Revolutions. London: Penguin, 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanke, Lewis. All Mankind Is One: A Study of the Disputation between Bartolomé de Las Casas and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda in 1550 on the Intellectual and Religious Capacity of the American Indians. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Havik, Philip J. “Walking the Tightrope: Female Agency, Religious Practice and the Portuguese Inquisition on the Upper Guinea Coast.” In Bridging the Early Modern Atlantic World: People, Products and Practices on the Move, ed. Williams, Caroline A., 173–202. Farnham: Ashgate, 2009.Google Scholar
Havik, Philip J. “Gendering the Black Atlantic: Women's Agency in Coastal Trade Settlements in the Guinea Bissau Region.” In Women in Port, Gendering Communities, Economies, and Social Networks in Atlantic Port Cities, 1500–1800, ed. Catterall, Douglas and Campbell, Jodi, 316–56. Leiden: Brill, 2012.Google Scholar
Herzog, Tamar. Defining Nations; Immigrants and Citizens in Early Modern Spain and Spanish America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Heywood, Linda M., and Thornton, John K.. Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585–1660. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Ireton, Chloe L. “‘They Are Blacks of the Caste of Black Christians’: Old Christian Black Blood in the Sixteenth- and Early Seventeenth-Century Iberian Atlantic.” Hispanic American Historical Review 97.4 (2017): 579–612.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martín, Jouve, José, R. Esclavos de la ciudad letrada: Esclavitud, escritura y colonialismo en Lima (1650–1700). Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 2005.Google Scholar
Landers, Jane G. “The African Landscape of Seventeenth-Century Cartagena and Its Hinterlands.” In The Black Urban Atlantic in the Age of the Slave Trade, ed. Cañizares-Esguerra, Jorge, Sidbury, James, and Childs, Matt D., 147–62. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013.Google Scholar
Las Casas, Bartolomé de. Brevísima relación de la destrucción de África: preludio de la destrucción de Indias; primera defensa de los guanches y negros contra su esclavización. Ed. Fernández, Isacio Pérez. Salamanca: Editorial San Esteban, 1989.Google Scholar
Latino, Juan. “The Song of John of Austria.” In The Battle of Lepanto, ed. and trans. Wright, Elizabeth R., Spence, Sarah, and Lemons, Andrew, 288–405. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Lofkrantz, Jennifer, and Ojo, Olatunji. “Slavery, Freedom, and Failed Ransom Negotiations in West Africa, 1730–1900,” Journal Of African History 53.1 (2012): 25–44.Google Scholar
Lucena Salmoral, Manuel, ed. Regulación de la esclavitud negra en las colonias de América Española (1503–1886): Documentos para su estudio. Alcalá: University of Alcalá de Henares, 2005.Google Scholar
Mangan, Jane E. Transatlantic Obligations: Creating the Bonds of Family in Conquest-Era Peru and Spain. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Mark, Peter, and da Silva Horta, José. The Forgotten Diaspora: Jewish Communities in West Africa and the Making of the Atlantic World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martín Casares, Aurelia. Juan Latino: Talento y destino; Un afroespañol en tiempos de Carlos V y Felipe II. Granada: Universidad de Granada, 2016.Google Scholar
Masters, Adrian. “A Thousand Invisible Architects: Vassals, the Petition-and-Response System, and the Creation of Spanish Imperial Caste Legislation.” Hispanic American Historical Review 98.3 (2018): 377–406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKinley, Michelle A. Fractional Freedoms: Slavery, Intimacy, and Legal Mobilization in Colonial Lima, 1600–1700. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKnight, Kathryn J. “Confronted Rituals: Spanish Colonial and Angolan ‘Maroon’ Executions in Cartagena de Indias (1634).” Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 5.3 (2004): 1–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Navarrete Peláez, María Cristina. Cimarrones y Palenques en el Siglo XVII. Cali: Universidad del Valle, 2003.Google Scholar
Navarrete Peláez, María Cristina. “Las cartas Annuas jesuitas: Y la representación de los etíopes en el siglo XVII.” In Genealogías de la diferencia: Tecnologías de la salvación y representación de los africanos esclavizados en Iberoamérica colonial, ed. Maldonado, María Eugenia Chaves, 22–57. Bogotá: Editorial de la Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Instituto de Estudios Sociales y Culturales Pensar; Quito: Editorial Abya-Yala, 2009.Google Scholar
Navarrete Peláez, María Cristina. “El palenque de Limón (Cartagena de Indias, siglo XVII): El imaginario del poder y sus jerarquías.” In Vicisitudes negro africanas en Iberoamérica: Experiencias de investigación, ed. Serna Herrera, Juan Manuel de la, 101–34. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Centro de Investigaciones sobre América Latina y el Caribe, 2011.Google Scholar
Navarrete Peláez, María Cristina. “Kings, Queens and Captains: Leaders of the Palenques of Sierras de María, during the XVI and XVII Centuries.” Fronteras de la Historia 20.2 (2015): 44–62.Google Scholar
Navarrete Peláez, María Cristina. “Consideraciones en Torno a la Esclavitud de los Etíopes y la operatividad de la Ley, Siglos XVI y XVII.” Historia y espacio 2.27 (2017): 1–23.Google Scholar
Newson, Linda A. “Africans and Luso-Africans in the Portuguese Slave Trade on the Upper Guinea Coast in the Early Seventeenth Century.” Journal of African History 53.1 (2012): 1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newson, Linda A., and Minchin, Susie. From Capture to Sale: The Portuguese Slave Trade to Spanish South America in the Early Seventeenth Century. Leiden: Brill, 2007.Google Scholar
Orique, David T. “A Comparison of Bartolomé de Las Casas and Fernão Oliveira: Just War and Slavery.” E-Journal of Portuguese History 12.1 (2014): 87–118.Google Scholar
Orique, David T., and Roldán-Figueroa, Rady, eds. Bartolomé de Las Casas, O.P.: History, Philosophy, and Theology in the Age of European Expansion. Leiden: Brill, 2018.Google Scholar
O'Toole, Rachel Sarah. Bound Lives: Africans, Indians, and the Making of Race in Colonial Peru. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pérez García, Rafael M., and Fernández Chaves, Manuel F.. “La cuantificación de la población esclava en la Andalucía moderna: Una revisión metodológica.” Varia hist. 31.57 (2015): 711–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pike, Ruth. “Sevillian Society in the Sixteenth Century: Slaves and Freedmen.” Hispanic American Historical Review 47.3 (1967): 344–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Queija, Berta Ares. “La cuestión del bautismo de los negros en el siglo XVII: La proyección de un debate americano.” In Mirando las dos orillas: intercambios mercantiles, sociales y culturales entre Andalucía y América, ed. Vilar, Enriqueta Vila and Lacueva Muñoz, Jaime J., 469–85. Seville: Fundación Buenas Letras. http://hdl.handle.net/10261/57537.Google Scholar
Ramos, Gabriela, and Yannikakis, Yanna, eds. Indigenous Intellectuals: Knowledge, Power, and Colonial Culture in Mexico and the Andes. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Rappaport, Joanne, and Cummins, Tom. Beyond the Lettered City: Indigenous Literacies in the Andes. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Rowe, Erin Kathleen. Black Saints in Early Modern Global Catholicism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sánchez-Godoy, Rubén A. “Bartolomé de Las Casas crítico de las esclavizaciones portuguesas en las islas Canarias y la costa occidental de África.” In Bartolomé de Las Casas (2011), 135–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sánchez-Godoy, Rubén A. El peor de los remedios: Bartolomé de Las Casas y la crítica temprana a la esclavitud africana en el Atlántico ibérico. Pittsburgh, PA: Instituto Internacional de Literatura Iberoamericana, 2016.Google Scholar
Sandoval, Alonso de. Naturaleza, policia sagrada i profana, costumbres i ritos, disciplina i catechismo evangelico de todos Etiopes, por el P. Alonso de Sandoval. Seville: F. de Lira, 1627. Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF), Paris, département réserve des livres rares (LR), 4-O3C-6.Google Scholar
Sandoval, Alonso de. Treatise on Slavery: Selections from De Instauranda Aethiopum Salute. Ed. and trans. Germeten, Nicole von. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2008.Google Scholar
Sierra Silva, Pablo Miguel. Urban Slavery in Colonial Mexico: Puebla De Los Ángeles, 1531–1706. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silverblatt, Irene. Modern Inquisitions: Peru and the Colonial Origins of the Civilized World. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Splendiani, Anna María, Bohórquez, José Enrique Sánchez, and de Salazar, Emma Cecilia Luque, eds. Cincuenta años de inquisición en el Tribunal de Cartagena de Indias, 1610–1660. 4 vols. Bogotá: Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, 1997.Google Scholar
Splendiani, Anna María, and Giraldo, Tulio Aristizábal, eds. Proceso de beatificación y canonización de san Pedro Claver. Bogotá: Pontifica Universidad Javeriana, 2002.Google Scholar
Tempère, Delphine. Vivre et mourir sur les navires du Siècle d'Or. Paris: Presses de l'Université Paris-Sorbonne, 2009.Google Scholar
Thornton, John K. “The Development of an African Catholic Church in the Kingdom of Kongo, 1491–1750.” Journal of African History 25.2 (1984): 147–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thornton, John K. “African Political Ethics and the Slave Trade: Central African Dimensions.” In Abolitionism and Imperialism in Britain, Africa, and the Atlantic, ed. Peterson, Derek R., 38–62. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Thornton, John K. “Afro-Christian Syncretism in the Kingdom of Kongo.” Journal of African History 54.1 (2013): 53–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valenzuela, Jaime. “Revisitando el ‘indigenismo’ jesuita: En torno a los ‘bárbaros’ de Arauco, la guerra y la esclavitud mapuche en el siglo XVII.” In Fronteiras e identidades: Encontros e desencontros entre povos indígenas e missões religiosas, ed. Chamorro, Graciela, Cavalcante, Thiago Leandro Vieira, and Gonçalves, Carlos Barros, 61–79. Sao Paulo: Nhanduti, 2011.Google Scholar
Van Deusen, Nancy. Global Indios: The Indigenous Struggle for Justice in Sixteenth-Century Spain. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Vidal Ortega, Antonino. Cartagena y la región histórica del Caribe: 1580–1640. Seville: Escuela de Estudios Hispanoamericanos, Universidad de Sevilla, and Diputación de Sevilla, 2002.Google Scholar
Vignaux, Hélène. L’Église et les Noirs dans l'audience du Nouveau Royaume de Grenade: Nueva edición [en línea]. Montpellier: Presses universitaires de la Méditerranée, 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wheat, David. “The First Great Waves: African Provenance Zones for the Transatlantic Slave Trade to Cartagena De Indias, 1570–1640.” Journal of African History 52.1 (2011): 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wheat, David. Atlantic Africa and the Spanish Caribbean, 1570–1640. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Wright, Elizabeth R. The Epic of Juan Latino: Dilemmas of Race and Religion in Renaissance Spain. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2016.Google Scholar